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Surgical site infections SSIs are associated with delayed wound healing, prolonged hospital stays, increased use of antibiotics, unnecessary pain, and rarely death. Antibiotic prophylaxis is a principal strategy for preventing SSIs, but reductions in SSIs can also be achieved by implementing multidisciplinary, hospital-wide, measures such as bowel preparation, skin preparation, disinfection and hygiene, maintenance of normothermia during surgery, and glycemic control [ ].
In older patients, it is important to choose the antimicrobial agent according to the susceptibility profile of colonizing bacteria. Particular attention should also be paid to the dosing regimen, because the relationship between appropriately dosed preoperative antibiotics and reduced risk of SSIs is well established. However, older patients may have renal impairment necessitating dose adjustment [ 60 , ]. In older patients, postoperative hyperglycemia is associated with poor wound healing, SSI, acute complications fluid and electrolyte disorders, acute renal failure , longer hospitalization, and death [ ].
The question of where the patient can receive the best possible support after discharge should be considered throughout the perioperative period. The lack of an appropriate discharge and transition plan makes early readmission more likely, and may impair functional status and quality of life [ ]. Changes to medication frequently occur during hospitalization of older adults, and prompt review within primary care is essential following discharge [ , ].
CGA of frail geriatric patients can reduce the risk of readmission when performed immediately before hospital discharge or on arrival in community settings. This should include targeting criteria to identify vulnerable patients, a multidimensional assessment program, comprehensive discharge planning, and home follow-up.
Some frail patients may develop a transient period of health vulnerability following hospitalization, known as the post-hospital syndrome PHS [ ]. PHS is characterized by the risk of early re-hospitalization due to physiologic stressors resulting from the initial admission, including disruption in sleep—wake cycles, inadequate pain control, deconditioning, and changes in nutritional status. Patients hospitalized within 90 days of elective surgery are at increased risk of PHS [ ].
Geriatric patients, especially if frail, often need prolonged hospitalization, or care in intermediate care facilities, before returning home. For some patients, worsening health and functional status make it impossible to return home. Discharge to residential care, and inability to maintain independence after surgery, may be unacceptable to many older patients [ ]. Anticipating which adults will require discharge to care facilities is important for preoperative counseling and care planning for both patients and caregivers.
Before surgery, patients and surgeons should discuss clearly what they hope to achieve with the intervention, and what secondary strategy should be adopted if these objectives are not achieved or complications occur.
These recommendations should facilitate the multidisciplinary management of older surgical patients, integrating the expertise of surgeons, anesthetists, geriatricians, and other specialists and health care professionals. A number of general statements can be made about the perioperative care of geriatric surgical patients. First, prehabilitation and ERAS protocols are recommended in all older candidates for elective surgery.
Second, continuity of care is the hallmark of optimal care, and this requires early planning of the expected needs, final location of care and transition strategies for problematic cases.
Finally, for medium- to high-risk patients, implementation of CGA and associated care should be considered in terms of the relative costs and benefits, rather than cost alone. The authors would like to thank Dr. Luigia Scudeller for assistance with methodology.
Medical writing and editorial assistance in the preparation of this paper were provided by Michael Shaw Ph. This work, including travel and meeting expenses, was supported by an unrestricted grant from MSD Italia Srl. The sponsor had no role in selecting the participants, reviewing the literature, defining consensus statements, drafting or reviewing the paper, or in the decision to submit the manuscript.
All views expressed are solely those of the authors. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. Aging Clin Exp Res. Published online Jul Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.
Stefano Volpato, Email: ti. Corresponding author. Received Mar 3; Accepted Jun 3. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material.
If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. This article has been corrected. See Aging Clin Exp Res.
Abstract Background Surgical outcomes in geriatric patients may be complicated by factors such as multiple comorbidities, low functional performance, frailty, reduced homeostatic capacity, and cognitive impairment.
Aims To develop evidence-based recommendations for the integrated care of geriatric surgical patients. Results A total of 81 recommendations were proposed, covering preoperative evaluation and care 30 items , intraoperative management 19 items , and postoperative care and discharge 32 items. Conclusions These recommendations should facilitate the multidisciplinary management of older surgical patients, integrating the expertise of the surgeon, the anesthetist, the geriatrician, and other specialists and health care professionals where available as needed.
There is high certainty that the net benefit is moderate or there is moderate certainty that the net benefit is moderate to substantial Offer or provide this service C The USPSTF recommends selectively offering or providing this service to individual patients based on professional judgment and patient preferences. These is at least moderate certainty that the net benefit is small Offer or provide this service for selected patients depending on individual circumstances D The USPSTF recommends against the service.
There is moderate or high certainty that the service has no net benefit or that the harms outweigh the benefits Discourage the use of this service I The USPSTF concludes that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of the service. Evidence is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting, and the balance of benefits and harms cannot be determined Read the clinical considerations section of USPSTF Recommendation Statement. If the service is offered, patients should understand the uncertainty about the balance of benefits and harms.
Open in a separate window. Quality of evidence Description High A The available evidence usually includes consistent results from a multitude of well-designed, well-conducted, studies in representative care populations. These studies assess the effects of the service on the desired health outcomes. Because of the precision of findings, this conclusion is, therefore, unlikely to be strongly affected by the results of future studies.
These recommendations are often based on direct evidence from clinical trials of screening, treatment or behavioral interventions. As more information becomes available, the magnitude or direction of the observed effect could change, and this change may be large enough to alter the conclusion Low C The available evidence is insufficient to assess effects on health outcomes. Evidence is insufficient because of: The very limited number or size of studies Inconsistency of direction or magnitude of findings across the body of evidence Critical gaps in the chain of evidence Findings are not generalizable to routine care practice A lack of information on prespecified health outcomes Lack of coherence across the linkages in the chain of evidence.
More information may allow an estimation of effects on health outcomes. Table 3 Summary of recommendations. We recommend a multimodal approach or, when possible, locoregional or plane blocks e. Frailty Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We suggest using multiparametric frailty scales e.
Prehabilitation strategy Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend a systematic prehabilitation strategy to improve functional status and increase the organic functional reserve Low A We recommend a cardiopulmonary exercise test before major surgery e. Prehabilitation Patients with functional deficits in activities of daily living, or difficulties with mobility, should be referred to an occupational or physical therapist.
Cardiopulmonary exercise testing Cardiopulmonary exercise testing objectively measures aerobic fitness or functional capacity. Falls Falls are the primary cause of unintentional injury, and a leading cause of death, in older adults. Sensory deficits and use of functional aids Concomitant sensory and cognitive impairment is common in older individuals [ 23 ], and is an independent risk factor for postoperative death and complications [ 24 ].
Cognitive function Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend cognitive assessment e. Comorbidities Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend that the relative implications of comorbidities, and chronic or degenerative pathologies, for the response to surgery be recognized Low A.
Respiratory Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend that risk factors for respiratory complications be assessed and reduced where possible e.
Nutritional Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend evaluation of nutritional status and correction of any deficiency, especially before major surgery Moderate A We recommend that albuminemia be assessed in all older surgical patients, especially those with hepatic comorbidity, multiple comorbidities, recent major pathology or suspected malnutrition, or candidates for major surgery Moderate A In candidates for major surgery with organ failure, we recommend an estimation of hydration and volume status with an instrumental method e.
Medication Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation It is recommended that the pharmacological history must be extended to include all drugs used by the patient, including over-the-counter and herbal medicines Low A If the patient is taking inappropriate medications e. Emotional status Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We suggest screening for depression using validated scales e.
Social support Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation It is recommended that the availability of family and social support be investigated during the preoperative assessment to allow planning of substitutive support measures Low A.
Intraoperative management Positioning Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation When positioning an older patient on the operating table, we suggest that attention be paid to conditions of the skin e.
Depth of anesthesia monitoring Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation During general anesthesia, we recommend EEG-based monitoring to avoid excessive anesthesia depth, which is associated with increased risk of postoperative delirium High A It is recommended that EEG-based monitoring is extended to procedures performed under sedation High A. Neuromuscular blocking agents Aging significantly affects the pharmacokinetics of neuromuscular blocking agents NMBAs , particularly with drugs eliminated by hepatic or renal metabolism [ ], and older patients are more sensitive to NMBAs than younger patients [ ].
Neuromuscular blockade reversal in older patients Complications related to postoperative residual curarization PORC are more frequent in older patients than in younger patients [ ].
Temperature control Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend body-temperature monitoring and active warming of the patient, preferably with a forced-air system, during the pre-, intra-, and postoperative periods High A If forced-air heating is only partially efficacious e. Postoperative delirium Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation It is recommended that prevention, recognition and treatment of postoperative delirium must be an objective of the multidisciplinary team Moderate A We recommend that patients at risk for POD be monitored with validated diagnostic tools such as the CAM or 4AT, starting when they wake from anesthesia and continuing for 5 days thereafter Moderate A.
Postoperative nausea and vomiting Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation Because of the high risk e. Postoperative pain Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation Personalized prevention and treatment of postoperative pain are mandatory. Postoperative pulmonary complications Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend periodic evaluation of oxygen saturation and respiratory rate in the postoperative period Moderate A We recommend that arterial blood gas analysis be used when conditions interfere with percutaneous oximetry e.
Postoperative cardiovascular complications Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation To prevent postoperative cardiac complications, we recommend monitoring continuously in selected cases and maintenance of cardiovascular measures e.
Urinary tract infection Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend that urinary catheters be used only when essential, and be removed as soon as possible High A We recommend to adopt strategies to prevent urinary tract infections before, during, and after insertion of a urinary catheter High A We do not recommend complementary strategies such as the use of alpha-blockers in men to promote spontaneous urinary function after catheter removal High D.
Nutrition and liquid balance Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation It is recommended that older patients undergo daily assessment of caloric intake and water balance Moderate A We recommended that swallowing should be evaluated, and the presence of oral lesions excluded in patients with signs and symptoms of dysphagia or a history of aspiration pneumonia Moderate A We suggest that all older patients are seated during meals and for an hour after eating Moderate B It is recommended that nutritional supplementation be given in patients with malnutrition or inadequate nutrition Moderate A It is recommended that dental prostheses, if used, are readily available and easily accessible Moderate A.
Pressure ulcers Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation Strategies to prevent and treat pressure injuries are recommended in patients at risk Moderate A. Surgical site infections Statement Quality of evidence Strength of recommendation We recommend guideline-consistent antimicrobial prophylaxis in older patients, considering antibiotic pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics to avoid overdoses and drug-related adverse events Moderate A.
Conclusions These recommendations should facilitate the multidisciplinary management of older surgical patients, integrating the expertise of surgeons, anesthetists, geriatricians, and other specialists and health care professionals. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Dr. Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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